Literacy and Communication - Ancient History: Egypt

One of the four varieties of Egyptian writing scripts, Coptic initially emerged during the first century CE. It quickly rose in popularity due to its inclusion of Greek letters and its display of vowels, both of which made Coptic much more user-friendly than past scripts. Although it eventually fell out of use sometime between 1100 and 1500 CE, it is still used today in Christian churches throughout Egypt (this particular faith is otherwise known as Coptic Christianity).

The two earlier varieties of Egyptian script, Hieroglyphics and Hieratic, were each somewhat difficult to reproduce and casually recognize. Accordingly, the third style, known as Demotic, came into use during the eighth century CE. Unlike its two predecessors, Demotic was not pictorial in nature; instead, it was a simple, abbreviated version of Hieratic script that was very easily and swiftly produced and read. It quickly became the favored script for nearly all of Egypt’s literate classes, including scribes, merchants, priests, and other individuals whose professions necessitated their use of written language.

During the Late Period, and other times in Egyptian history (such as the New Kingdom and possibly the Middle Kingdom), formal education was available for a small number of people within Egyptian society. Primarily, formal education was extended to male elites and the sons of government officials. This ensured that only a tiny fraction of the population was literate, never more than one or two percent.

The Books of Breathing became popular in Egypt during the Late Period (probably during the so-called Saite Revival). They are prominent examples of Late Period funerary texts and may be understood as a continuation of the tradition of the earlier Egyptian Book of the Dead and other such funerary texts.

A hieroglyph is an ancient form of writing in which pictures represent words, syllables, or sounds. Hieroglyphs emerged during the Neolithic Era and have served as a means for archaeologists to learn about ancient Egypt. These pictures can be found on artifacts, on rocks, and on the walls of pyramids.

During the New Kingdom, many upper class women participated in religious ceremonies by playing musical instruments, such as a harp or sistrum. These instruments were intended to accompany specific rituals and were an important component of communal Egyptian worship.

Young students in ancient Egypt learned to read and write through rote memorization. Would-be scribes and government officials were instructed to copy out classic ancient texts in order to teach them how to write.

The vast majority of ancient Egyptians received no formal education whatsoever. The only people who were generally guaranteed an education were the sons of scribes and government officials. Girls were never formally educated in Egyptian society. Of course, some Egyptians might have privately educated their daughters, but this would have been extremely uncommon.

We know a considerable amount about the education of would-be scribes and government officials in the New Kingdom period. Egyptologists have determined that students were taught how to write in the hieratic script before later being taught to write and understand the much more cumbersome hieroglyphics. This is because the hieratic script was simpler, more commonly used, and more useful for government work.

The palace complex of Malkata is one of the few royal houses that survives in the archaeological record. Most archaeologists believe that it was a community that developed in Thebes to support the reign of Amenhotep III. The palace complex of Malkata provides important evidence about how Egyptian rulers lived and how their lives were intertwined with those of their subjects.

The Great Harris Papyrus dates from the reign of Ramesses III, during the twentieth dynasty. It is primarily notable for being the longest surviving papyrus. It provides a summary of the reign of Ramesses III and a list of his temple endowments.

The War Crown, also called the Khepresh, was most typically worn by the powerful rulers of the eighteenth dynasty. The eighteenth dynasty was the height of ancient Egyptian power during the New Kingdom and the Pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty were accomplished military commanders who engaged in constant wars of aggression against their neighbors. The War Crown was meant to demonstrate their martial prowess and territorial reach.

The Litany of Ra is one of the more famous examples of a funerary text. It dates from the New Kingdom period and can be found inscribed on the walls of the tombs of many New Kingdom rulers. The Litany of Ra is a collection of prayers, primarily dedicated to the Sun God and to the Pharaoh’s association with the divine power of the Sun.

The Book of Kemyt was a collection of funerary texts and accounts of the lives of previous rulers. It was used, during the New Kingdom period and later, in Egyptian government training. Would-be scribes and young upper class males were educated to read and write Egyptian through rote memorization. They would copy out classic texts like the Book of Kemyt over and over again until they had learned to write.

Upon accession to the throne, most Pharaoh’s would acquire several new names. These new names, like the “Golden Horus Name” were primarily intended to emphasize the Pharaoh’s divinity.

The ancient Egyptian understanding of mathematics was relatively advanced, but still significantly limited by our modern standards. The ancient Egyptians did not use multiplication and division (instead they relied on a series of additions or subtractions); they had a rudimentary understanding of fractions and percentage; and they had no concept of the number zero. Ancient Egyptian mathematics was primarily concerned with practical accounting and commerce and was not focused on the pursuit of mathematics for its own sake.

The primary function of ancient Egyptian “wisdom texts” was to enforce social conformity. These “wisdom texts” could take the form of guidelines on correct social behavior or practical lessons for would-be scholars. Maintenance of social order and harmony was deeply important to the ancient Egyptians and was a fundamental component of their understanding of the universe. “Wisdom texts” were used to reinforce this social order and encourage social cohesion.

Young students in ancient Egypt learned to read and write through rote memorization. Would-be scribes and government officials were instructed to copy out classic ancient texts in order to teach them how to write.

The vast majority of ancient Egyptians received no formal education whatsoever. The only people who were generally guaranteed an education were the sons of scribes and government officials. Girls were never formally educated in Egyptian society. Of course, some Egyptians might have privately educated their daughters, but this would have been extremely uncommon.

We know a considerable amount about the education of would-be scribes and government officials in the New Kingdom period. Egyptologists have determined that students were taught how to write in the hieratic script before later being taught to write and understand the much more cumbersome hieroglyphics. This is because the hieratic script was simpler, more commonly used, and more useful for government work.