Technology and Agriculture - Ancient History: Egypt

According to archeologists, the earliest documented sample of papyrus paper dates all the way back to the First Dynasty, sometime during the Predynastic Period. As a writing medium, papyrus was infinitely preferable to stone, due to its strength, lightness, durability, and portability. Over time, Ancient Egyptian craftsmen fine-tuned their rigorous process of transforming the raw marsh weed into a suitable piece of writing paper. Papyrus’s inherent versatility allowed it to also be utilized in the formation of chairs, tables, boxes, ropes, and even boats. Astonishingly, several papyrus documents and scrolls have survived to this day – such as the famed Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus and the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.

Prior to the Neolithic Revolution in Egypt, nutrition was obtained in one of three ways — hunting, gathering, and fishing. After the advent of agriculture, both fishing and gathering continued to be both profitable and common, however, hunting (as a means of providing sustenance) largely died out. Archaeological evidence suggests that hunting still retained a ritualistic purpose throughout much of ancient Egyptian history.

Ancient Egyptian civilization arose on the African continent. The earliest Egyptian people had to contend with all manner of threats that emerged from the natural world. One such threat that plagued Egyptians in ancient times was the impact of hippopotami on crops. The animals constantly destroyed the crops of Egyptian farmers by trampling on them or by digging them up. As a result, they were extensively hunted. Even after hippopotami were no longer a threat to Egyptian agricultural communities they were still often hunted as part of a ritualistic ceremony.

'Winnowed' is an agricultural term. It is part of the process by which grain is harvested. Ancient Egyptian farmers would first cut the grain ('threshing'). Then, the grain would be lifted into the air so that the chaff (unused part of the plant) could blow away in the wind. The leftover grain fell to the ground. This process, of separating the wheat from the chaff, is called 'winnowing.'

Due to a widespread lack of wood, Ancient Egyptian engineers and architects primarily relied upon stone and brick as their main building materials. Bricks were formed out of the Nile River’s fertile mud and then left to bake beneath the sun until they had been scorched hard and solid under its fiery rays. As for stone, multiple varieties were quarried and utilized; granite, limestone, and sandstone were the most abundantly favored. Generally speaking, stone was mainly used in the construction of pyramids, temples, tombs, and sculptures, while bricks were used much more ubiquitously, to build everything from temple walls, palaces, and civic complexes.

Senusret III, who ruled Egypt during a period of wealth and prosperity, was one of the most powerful rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty. Among his many notable accomplishments, Senusret III is credited with the construction of a canal which allowed trade and travel to pass beyond the first cataract on the Nile River. The cataracts were a series of shallow, white water rapids that prevented travel along the Nile River to the south of Egypt.

The ancient Egyptians marked the beginning of their year with the rising of the Nile, known as the season of the Inundation. This flooding of the area around the Nile was extremely important as it left silt and moisture in the growing land, allowing the Egyptians to farm in their desert country.

The fertile flood plains of the Nile River provided perfect conditions for grain farming. Wheat, in particular, was vital to the survival of the Egyptian population. From the earliest times, the Egyptians also brewed beer in massive quantities and consumed it on a daily basis. To the ancient Egyptians, beer was less an intoxicant and more a vital dietary staple.

During the Old Kingdom, the heavy materials needed for the construction of monuments were transported from quarries on sledges pulled by men or beasts of burden. Of course, it would have been much easier to use a wheeled-device, like a chariot, but the wheel was not commonly used or known in Egyptian society until after the invasion of the Hyksos.

During the early years of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt underwent a period of artistic development. This period is defined by the widespread construction of lifelike sculptures. These sculptures were usually of rulers and were placed in temples dedicated to specific Gods (or to the ruler himself). The sculptures, it is generally assumed, were meant to project power and intimidate any potential enemies.

The Hyksos people are most noted for their influence on advancements in weapons, such as bronze weaponry. Prior to the Hyksos invasions, Egypt did not have any bronze weaponry and did not wear armor. Because of the influence and establishment of the Hyksos in Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt was able to learn and develop advancements in weapons.

The Hyksos invaded and successfully conquered most of Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom. They ruled for approximately a century from 1,650 to 1,550 BCE. The Hyksos notably introduced advanced weaponry, like horse-drawn chariots, to Egyptian society. The Egyptians used these new technologies to drive the Hyksos out of Egypt and establish a powerful empire during the New Kingdom.

The wheel was most likely introduced into Egyptian society by the Hyksos during the 17th century BCE. This means that the Great Pyramids of Giza, constructed a thousand years before the Hyksos invasion, were constructed without the use of wheels - a considerable accomplishment.

The Papyrus Rhind is one of the most famous examples of an ancient Egyptian mathematical text. It contains a formula for determining the area of the circle and provides substantial evidence regarding the sophistication of Egyptian mathematical understanding.

The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus dates from the Second Intermediate Period. It differs from the other medical papyri that have so far been discovered in that it is much more rational and scientific in its approach. Rather than advising magical or ritual solutions for diseases and injuries, it provides actual surgical or medical solutions. It is written as a series of case studies and includes symptoms, diagnoses, and prognoses.

Papyrus was an extremely versatile and stable crop for Egyptians living in the New Kingdom. The crop was used as food (the roots are edible and nutritious), while the stems were used to make numerous industrial products, like boats, household mats and coverings, and paper. Papyrus is not, however, a strong enough substance out of which to build houses.

Most Egyptian houses were built using mud-baked bricks. These houses were common throughout the span of ancient Egyptian history.

The Berlin Medical Papyrus most likely dates from the New Kingdom period. It provides evidence that the ancient Egyptians understood the function of the heart and the vascular system. The ancient Egyptians, when compared to other ancient civilizations, had an extremely advanced medical understanding.

The Turin Papyrus Map is the earliest known example of a topographical survey found anywhere in the world. It shows the location of various metal mines in the Wadi Hammamat. It was used during a quarrying expedition of Ramasses IV to locate gold reserves.

The Hittites, an Indo-European people originating in Anatolia, created an emerging empire as a result of rapid chariot-based conquests. The inevitable showdown with New Kingdom Egypt, secure in its internal situation as a result of the expulsion of the Hyksos by the Eighteenth Dynasty, culminated in the Battle of Kadesh in modern-day Syria (near the Lebanese border). While Ramesses won a tactical victory, he was forced to withdraw, resulting in a war of attrition lasting many more years until a peace treaty was signed. While the Battle of Kadesh represents Egypt at perhaps the height of its power, with spheres of influence in the Levant and Nubia, Egyptian power and influence declined precipitously during the Iron Age (the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period). While Egypt had essentially ruled Canaan as a satellite during the period of the New Kingdom, the weakening of Egyptian power as a result of the Bronze Age collapse and the invasions of the Sea Peoples allowed independent kingdoms of Israel and Judah to fill this vacuum. The Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Empires all succeeded in ending Egyptian independence by conquering Egypt, followed by the Alexandrian Macedonian, Hellenistic and Roman Empires.