A karyotype is a diagram that depicts all 23 pairs of chromosomes by showing their shapes relative to one another. The process of karyotyping involves examining chromosomes to identify any genetic problems that could result in a disorder or disease. 

Homologous recombination is a natural process in many organisms that cells use to repair DNA, increase genetic variation of offspring during meiosis, or to transfer DNA between individual in viruses or bacteria. In genetic engineering, a section of chromosomal DNA is replaced with a modified version of that segment. Since specific sequences of DNA are being replaced rather than just inserted between natural occurring sequences, this method allows DNA to be placed in specific location in the cell’s chromosomal DNA.

Viral vectors are modified so that they can infect cells, but they cannot replicate. Viral vectors are also much more efficient at introducing DNA to cells than transformation. Even though the virus has been modified to be harmless, however, the host’s immune system can still attack it, leading to a potentially dangerous immune response. Many viruses randomly insert their DNA into host chromosomes, possibly inserting the DNA in the middle of a host gene and interrupting the gene’s function. If the affected host gene is important in cell replication, DNA repair, or programmed cell death, this could lead to cancer.

Positively charged calcium ions are attracted to both the negatively charged plasmid DNA and the negatively charged plasma membrane, overcoming the usual repulsion between the two and allowing them to bind. Heat shock is used to open pores during the transformation process, so that the bound plasmid DNA can enter the cell. Bacteria defenses generally destroy viral DNA, not bacterial plasmid DNA. Calcium is used as a signal in many cell processes, but this is not the purpose of calcium chloride in transformation. 

A reporter gene is a gene that is introduced to cells along with a gene of interest in order to determine which cells have been successfully transformed. Since both genes are on the same plasmid, if the bacterial colonies after incubation fluoresce green then they also have the gene of interest, which may not be detected as easily. Knockout and knock-in genes refer to genetic changes chromosomal DNA and are not introduced using plasmids. A promoter refers to a part of a gene that regulates its expression.

Bacteria do not perform post-transcriptional modification of mRNA. None of the other answers are actual differences between bacteria and eukaryotes. Bacteria begin translating mRNA into amino acids before transcription has even completed, giving them no opportunity to modify the mRNA transcript before translation. Therefore, a cDNA copy must be made from the already modified mRNA produced by the eukaryotic organism and then introduced into the bacterial cell. That way the bacteria can transcribe and translate the cDNA without having to modify the mRNA transcript.

Vectors are used to deliver the target gene into the cell. The selectable marker gene, when expressed, shows that the genes were successfully introduced into the cell. A promoter is used to initiate transcription of both the target gene and the marker gene, and a terminator ends their transcription. While ligase is often used to make recombinant DNA to be inserted into a cell, it is not necessary to introduce ligase into the cell.

Gametes contain half the genetic information as other cells in the body. If the genotype for the blue zebra is Bb, this means that half the genetic information for this phenotype of color would be a gamete containing B or a gamete containing b. Similarly, the possible gametes for the pink zebra with genotype bb would be b or b.

In order to find the phenotypic ratio, it is first necessary to find the genotypes of the offspring. This is done by doing a Punnett square, as shown in linked photo.

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It is possible that the genotypes of both parent rams are Cc and Cc. This would mean that both parents carry the recessive allele for straight horns (c). By doing a Punnett square, we can see that there is a possibility of an offspring with straight horns.

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