In 1971, Philip Zimbardo and his team of research assistants ran the infamous Stanford Prison Experiment. For six days, they studied the psychological effects of being a prisoner or prison guard. The experiment was supposed to run for two full weeks, but abruptly ended due to significant abuse between the guards and the prisoners. 

The bystander effect maintains that the larger a group of bystanders, the lower the chance that an individual needing help will receive it. This is in large part due to a diffusion of responsibility, and everyone assuming someone else will handle the situation. 

When the individual knows the group can see his/her behavior, he/she is more likely to conform to the group. Individuals are also more likely to conform when the group is larger, but this only increases conformity up to a certain point, after which conformity levels off and does not further increase with group size. Further, if there is unanimous agreement within the group, an individual is more likely to conform. If even one individual within a group dissents, the likelihood of conformity will decrease. Last, if the individual feels insecure or incompetent, or looks up to and admires members of the group, they are more likely to conform.

Subjects were more likely to listen to the command if it came from an individual they viewed as a legitimate authority figure, rather than someone who was their equal or peer. Subjects were also more likely to obey if they saw others obeying, if the command came from someone in the room, or if the "learner" being punished was in another room.

Stereotype threat occurs when people fear that they will confirm unfavorable stereotypes about a social group they belong to. In this question, girls are stereotyped to be not as good at math as boys, so Suzie is nervous about confirming that stereotype in that context of her math class. 

The mere-exposure effect states that people are more likely to enjoy things with which they are familiar, accounting for Elena's increased affinity for the song as she becomes more familiar with it. 

"Dashiell doesn't clap after a concert because he sprained his wrist, but Sarah assumes it is because he is being rude" is an example of fundamental attribution error because there is a external factor (a sprained wrist) accounting for Dashiell's behavior, but Sarah attributes it to a internal personality trait (rudeness).

Because dentists are experts/authorities in the field of dental care, a toothpaste ad claiming their approval appeals to their authority to convince consumers to buy the product- basically, they're saying "if dentists think our toothpaste is good, you should think it's good too."

While individual experiences of grief certainly vary, and some grievers may not even experience all five stages, the grieving process is usually described as a procession from immediate denial into anger, then through bargaining and depression before one can finally reach acceptance.

Joe is most likely to develop a substance abuse issue, as research has shown that increased negative interactions with parents lead to increased drinking and smoking. He wouldn't develop high self-esteem; in fact, he would probably develop low self-esteem as a result of these negative interactions. He might do poorly at school as a result of being distracted or lacking self-esteem.