Genes are hereditary units that are responsible for the phenotypes of an organism. Genes are the directions for the body. Genetic change exists when genes are altered from their previous form. Genes are made up of DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is made up of four bases- adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Genetic change can result from a variety of factors. Both scientists mentioned below agree on this basic information about genes. However, the scientists do not agree on the primary driving force behind genetic change.

Scientist 1

A mutation is a permanent change in the sequence of the DNA of a gene. There are several types of mutations—point mutations, silent mutations, frame mutations, and nonsense mutations. Mutations are very important because proteins are synthesized by reading the DNA sequence. If the DNA sequence is changed, the proteins transcribed from the DNA will be different proteins. Mutations directly and substantially change the genes by changing the sequence of the four bases. Therefore, mutations are the main factor when looking at genetic change.

Scientist 2 

Sexual reproduction is the biggest contributor to genetic change. New combinations of genes are created with every random union of a sperm and egg. During division of the sex cells, or meiosis, crossing over can occur. Crossing over describes the situation when the genes from one parent’s chromosome are traded with genes from the other parent’s chromosome. This results in new combinations of genes. Lastly, a phenomenon called independent assortment results from sexual reproduction. Independent assortment is the random assortment of chromosomes during reproduction. Therefore, by its random nature, sexual reproduction is the largest contributor to genetic change.

Vaccinations have become a controversial topic in the United States. Currently the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates all vaccines. The federal government does not mandate vaccinations for any individual; however, all states require vaccinations for children entering public school. There are several types of vaccines—live attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines, subunit vaccines, toxoid vaccines, and conjugate vaccines, just to name a few. All of these vaccines have the shared purpose of exposing the host body to antigens of a specific disease. When the body receives the antigens, the immune system is activated, remembering the antigens. The next time the individual is exposed to the disease, the body will remember the antigen and have a better probability of not getting infected. Two scientists below discuss their belief on vaccines.

Scientist 1

Vaccines have saved many lives. The risks of not being vaccinated far outweigh the risks of adverse vaccine reactions. Reports linking autism to vaccines have been evaluated by the CDC, which states there is no scientific link between autism and vaccines. The second leading cancer killer in women is cervical cancer. The HPV vaccine protects against the two most common strains causing cancer. This is an example of a vaccine that does much more good than bad. Vaccines also reduce the amount of money spent on healthcare, because the preventative cost of a vaccine is much cheaper than the cost of treating an infected person. The only time a vaccine should not be administered is if the chance of the individual coming into contact with the disease is so rare it is not worth the potential of adverse reactions.

 Scientist 2

Many vaccines nowadays are extraneous. Vaccines for diseases like whooping cough and scarlet fever were once necessary but now outdated. Modern updates on hygiene, waste management, and water filtration have resulted in significantly decreased chances of infection. In addition, diseases like rotavirus have an infection period of a few days, and the main symptom is dehydration. Modern medicine can easily treat severe dehydration, and the risk of rotavirus infection is very slim; therefore, the results of infection are far milder than the results of an adverse reaction. Vaccines for children can cause extremely dangerous adverse reactions. This includes anaphylactic shock, paralysis, and death. While scientists have not been able to conclusively prove this, many believe that these reactions are related to the age of the host and the lack of a developed immune systemor neural network. Vaccines suppress the immune system, which can lead to autoimmune disorders. In addition, vaccines can congest the lymphatic system with proteins molecules from the vaccines; therefore, I would recommend requirements for vaccination to take place at a later stage in a child’s development.