The pancreatic alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is responsible for stimulating gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Gluconeogenesis is de novo formation of glucose, while glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. An increase in glucagon production through hyperactive alpha cells will result in increased blood glucose levels, at least temporarily. In a healthy individual, this will be combatted by an increase in insulin production from the pancreatic beta cell.

Parathyroid hormone causes calcium to be released from the bone into the blood stream, raising blood calcium levels. Osteoclasts reside in bone and are responsible for resorbing the hydroxyapatite matrix, releasing sequestered calcium into the blood.

Osteoblasts counter osteoclasts, building the hydroxyapatite matrix and sequestering calcium stores. Osteocytes are mostly involved in signaling. The parathyroid gland releases parathyroid hormone, but is not affected by the hormone itself. T-cell mature in the thyroid, and are not affected by parathyroid activity.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released from the anterior pituitary, and is responsible for stimulating secretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. While cortisol is the most common and physiologically relevant glucocorticoid, others may also be synthesized. Adrenocorticotropic hormone release is stimulated by stress.

The hypothalamus is divided up into two parts: the magnocellular neurons and the parvocellular neurons. The magnocellular neurons synthesize antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin, which are then transported to the posterior pituitary for secretion. The parvocellular neurons secrete hormones such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which are released into portal circulation to be transported to the anterior pituitary.

The type of transport that a hormone will have through the bloodstream depends on the type of hormone. Peptide hormones are polar and can move freely through the bloodstream, while lipid soluble hormones require a carrier protein in order to move through the blood. The pancreatic hormones, glucagon and insulin, are peptide hormones. This means they can move through the bloodstream without a carrier protein.

In contrast, steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and thyroid hormones are derived from tyrosine. Both of these hormone classes are lipid soluble, and require transport proteins to travel through the blood. The hormone-protein unit is known as a chylomicron.

Calcitonin is a hormone secreted by the thyroid in response to increased blood calcium levels. It counteracts high blood calcium by stimulating the deposit of calcium into bone. Osteoblasts are the most active cells in building the hydroxyapatite matrix of bone, and would be most stimulated by the release of calcitonin.

Osteocytes are matured osteoblasts in the bond interior, and are more active in signaling and regulation than bond formation. Osteoclasts counteract osteoblasts and break down bone, usually in response to parathyroid hormone. Hydroxyapatite is the crystalline matrix encasing the bone cells, but is not a type of cell itself. Erythropoietic stem cells reside in the bone marrow and produce blood cells, but are not involved in calcium regulation.

The first key to understanding this question is remembering that beta cells in the pancreas are responsible for secreting insulin. If the beta cells are destroyed, then insulin levels are low. Insulin and glucagon act in opposite ways to keep the concentration of blood glucose in the normal range, providing a negative feedback loop. Insulin inhibits glucagon, and glucagon inhibits insulin. If insulin is low, then glucagon will not be inhibited and will be produced at higher levels than normal.

Type II diabetes results from an eventual lack of function of the pancreatic beta cells. The first step to this problem is remembering that the beta cells produce insulin. If the beta cells do not function, insulin levels will be decreased. The second step to this problem is remembering that insulin and glucagon have contrasting actions in the regulation of blood glucose levels. They act in a negative feedback loop: insulin inhibits glucagon release, and glucagon inhibits insulin release. If insulin levels are low, then glucagon will no longer be inhibited. As a result, we would observe low levels of insulin and elevated levels of glucagon.

Milk production is influenced by prolactin (produced in the anterior pituitary). Bone growth is influenced by growth hormone (produced in the anterior pituitary). Ovulation is controlled by luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone (both produced in the anterior pituitary). T4, a thyroid hormone, is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone (produced in the anterior pituitary). Water retention, on the other hand, is controlled by antidiuretic hormone (produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary).

The corpus luteum forms after ovulation, when a pregnancy would be most expected. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which maintains the endometrium for potential implantation.